Saracen
was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Arabs at first, then later for all who professed the religion of Islam. [1]
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Etymology
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The term "Saracen" comes from
Greek Sa?a?????
, which has often been thought to be derived from the
Arabic word
?????? (
sharqiyyin
, meaning "easterners"), though the
Oxford English Dictionary
(
s.v.) calls etymologies from this "not well founded"; The term spread into
Western Europe through the
Byzantines and
Crusaders.
After the rise of
Islam, and especially at the time of the
Crusades, its usage was extended to refer to all
Muslims, including non-Arab Muslims, particularly those in
Sicily and
southern Italy.
[2]
In
Christian writing, the name meant "those empty of
Sarah" or "not from Sarah," as Arabs were, in
Biblical genealogies, descended from
Hagar and also called the
Hagarenes (
??a?????
). According to the
Arthurian Lancelot-Grail Cycle, the name derives from
Sarras, an island important in the
Quest for the Holy Grail.
Roman times
The earliest datable reference to Saracens is found in
Ptolemy's
Geography
(2nd century A.D.), which describes "Sarakene" as a region in the Northern
Sinai named after the town
Saraka located between
Egypt and
Palestine.
[3] Ptolemy also makes mention of a people called the
sarakenoi
living in north-western
Arabia.
references Saracens in his
Eccelastical history
, in which he narrates an account wherein
Dionysus the Bishop of Alexandria mentions Saracens in a letter while describing
the Roman emperor Decius's persecution: "Many were, in the Arabian mountain, enslaved by the barbarous
sarkenoi
."
The
Historia Augusta
, written in 400 [AD] also refers to an attack by
Saraceni
on
Pescennius Niger's army in
Aegyptus, 193 [C.E.] but provides little information on who they might be.
[4]
Hippolytus, the book of the laws of countries and Uranius mention three distinct peoples in Arabia during the first half of the third century, the Saraceni, Taeni and
Arabes.
The Taeni, later identified with the Arab tribe called Tayyi, were located around the
Khaybar Oasis all the way up to the eastern
Euphrates while the Saracenoi were placed north of them.
These Saracens located in the Northern
Hejaz appear as people with a certain military ability and opponents of the
Roman Empire who are characterized by the Romans as
barbaroi
.
They are described in a
Notitia dignitatum
dating from the time of
Diocletian, during the 3rd century, as comprising distinctive units in the composition of the
Roman army distinguishing between Arabs, Iiluturaens and Saracens.
[5] The Saracens are described as forming the
equites (heavy cavalry)
from
Phoenicia and
Thamud.
In a
praeteritio
, the defeated enemies of Diocletians campaign in the
Syrian desert are described as Saracens and other 4th century military reports make no mention of Arabs but refer to groups as far as Mesopotamia, involved in battles on both the Persian as well as Roman sides, as Saracens.
The
Historia Augusta
carries an account of a letter to the
Roman senate, ascribed to
Aurelian, that describes the
Palmyrian queen
Zenobia as:
"I might say such was the fear that this woman inspired in the peoples of the east and also the Egyptians that neither
Arabes, nor Saraceni, nor
Armenians moved against her."
Another early
Byzantine source chronicling the Saracens are the 6th century works by
Ioannes Malalas.
The difference between the two accounts of Saracens is that Malalas saw Palmyrans and all inhabitants of the Syrian desert as Saracens and not Arabs, while the
Historia Augusta
saw the Saracens as not being subjects of Zenobia and distinct from Palmyrans and Arabs.
Writing at the end of the fourth century
Ammianus Marcellinus, a historian of
Julian the Apostate, notes that the term Saraceni designating "desert-dwellers" of the Syrian desert had replaced
Arabes scenitae
.
After the time of Ammianus the Saracens were known as warriors of the desert.
[7] The term Saracen, popular in both Greek and Roman literature, over time came to be associated with Arabs and Assyrians as well, and carried a definitive negative connotation.
In the second and third century the Roman-Arab relations had become confrontational resulting in the annexation of Arab cities resulting to their increased nomadization so that by the end of the Roman period the use of the term Saracen in reference to Arabs had become conventional.
[8]
The
Middle Persian correspondent terms for Saracens are
tazigan
and
tayyaye
; who were located by
Stephanus of Byzantium in the 6th century at the
Lakhmid capital city of
Al-Hirah.
[9]
Christian literature
Eusebius and
Epiphanius Scholasticus in their
Christian histories places Saracens east of the
Gulf of Aqaba but beyond the
Roman province of Arabia and mention them as
Ishmaelites through
Kedar; thus, they are outside the promise given to
Abraham and his descendants through
Isaac and also beyond a privileged place in the family of nations or
divine dispensation.
[10] They were viewed as pagans and polytheists in ancient times and in later Christian times became associated with cruel
tyrants from early Christian history such as:
Herod the Great,
Herod Antipas and
Agrippa I. Christian writings viewed them as
heretics who had to be brought into the
Orthodox fold by
Origen. To
the Christian Saint Jerome the Arabs, who were also considered in Christian
theology as Ishmaelites, are also by definition Saracens;
pagan tent-dwelling raiders of the lands on the eastern fringes of the Roman empire. The term saracen carried the connotation of people living on the fringes of settled society, living off raids on towns and villages and became equated with both the "tent-dwelling"
Bedouin as well as sedentary Arabs. Church writers of the period commonly describe Saracen raids on
monasteries and their killing of
monks. The term and the negative image of Saracens was in popular usage in both the
Greek east as well as the
Latin west through the Middle Ages. With the rise of
Islam in the seventh century and its strong association with Arabs, tied the term closely with not just race and culture, but religion as well. The astonishing and fast rise of the
Arab Empire including their ensuing expansionist attacks on the
Byzantine Empire and all along the Mediterranean coast, resulted in a conflict between Islam and Christianity, where the association of the term with Islam was further accentuated at that time as well as during and after the
Crusades.
John of Damascus, a resident of the
Caliphate's capital city, described the Saracens in the early 8th century as:
-
There is also the people-deceiving cult (threskeia) of the Ishmaelites, the forerunner of the Antichrist, which prevails until now. It derives from Ishmael, who was born to Abraham from Hagar, wherefore they are called Hagarenes and Ishmaelites. And they call them Saracens, inasmuch as they were sent away empty-handed by Sarah (ek tes Sarras kenous); for it was said to the angel by Hagar: "Sarah has sent me away empty-handed" (cf. Genesis xxi. 10, 14). These, then, were idolaters and worshippers of the morning star and Aphrodite whom in fact they called Akbar (Chabar) in their own language, which means "great". So until the times of Heraclius they were plain idolaters. From that time till now a false prophet appeared among them, surnamed Muhammad (Mamed), who, having happened upon the Old and the New Testament and apparently having conversed, in like manner, with an Arian monk, put together his own heresy. And after ingratiating himself with the people by a pretence of piety, he spread rumours of a scripture (graphe) brought down to him from heaven. So, having drafted some ludicrous doctrines in his book, he handed over to them this form of worship (to sebas). [11]
See also
- Mohammedan
- Medieval Christian view of Muhammad
- Orientalism
- History of Islam in southern Italy
- Byzantine-Arab Wars
- Serkland
- Moors
References
- "Saracen." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 23 Sept. 2007.
- Where's Where: A Descriptive Gazetteer
- Retso pg. 505,506.
- Retso pg. 457.
- Retso pg. 464,465,466.
- Retso pg. 517.
- Retso pg.523
- Hoy pg. 39-45
- Retso pg.493
- Retso pg.507
- The Fountain of Knowledge John of Damascus circa 730 AD Chapter On Heresy