A pendulum
is a weight suspended from a pivot so it can swing freely. [1]
When a pendulum is displaced from its resting equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate it back toward the equilibrium position. When released, the restoring force will cause it to oscillate about the equilibrium position, swinging back and forth. The time for one complete cycle, a left swing and a right swing, is called the period. From its discovery around 1602 by Galileo Galilei the regular motion of pendulums was used for timekeeping, and was the world's most accurate timekeeping technology until the 1930s. [2] Pendulums are used to regulate pendulum clocks, and are used in scientific instruments such as accelerometers and seismometers. Historically they were used as gravimeters to measure the acceleration of gravity in geophysical surveys, and even as a standard of length. The word 'pendulum' is new Latin, from the Latin pendulus
, meaning 'hanging'. [3]
The simple gravity pendulum
[4] is an idealized mathematical model of a pendulum. [5]
[6]
[7] This is a weight (or bob) on the end of a massless cord suspended from a pivot, without friction. When given an initial push, it will swing back and forth at a constant amplitude. Real pendulums are subject to friction and air drag, so the amplitude of their swings declines.
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PENDULUM TICKETS
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Period of oscillation
The period of swing of a simple gravity pendulum depends on its
length, the
acceleration of gravity, and to a small extent on the maximum
angle that the pendulum swings away from vertical,
?0
, called the
amplitude.
[8] It is independent of the
mass of the bob. If the amplitude is limited to small swings, the
period T
of a simple pendulum, the time taken for a complete cycle, is:
[9]
where
is the length of the pendulum and
is the local
acceleration of gravity.
For small swings, the period of swing is approximately the same for different size swings: that is,
the period is independent of amplitude
. This property, called
isochronism, is the reason pendulums are so useful for timekeeping.
[10] Successive swings of the pendulum, even if changing in amplitude, take the same amount of time.
This formula is strictly accurate only for tiny infinitesimal swings. For larger
amplitudes, the period increases
exponentially with amplitude so it is longer than given by equation (1). For example, at an amplitude of
?0
= 22° it is 1% larger than given by (1). The true period cannot be represented by a closed formula but is given by an
infinite series:
[11]
[12]
T & = 2\pi \sqrt{L\over g} \left( 1+ \frac{1}{16}\theta_0^2 + \frac{11}{3072}\theta_0^4 + . . . \right)
\end{alignat}
The difference between this true period and the period for small swings (1) above is called the
circular error
.
Mathematically, for small swings the pendulum approximates a
harmonic oscillator, and its motion approximates
simple harmonic motion:
Compound pendulum
The length
L
of the ideal simple pendulum above, used for calculating the period, is the distance from the
pivot point to the
center of gravity of the bob. For a real pendulum consisting of a swinging
rigid body, called a
compound pendulum
, the length is more difficult to define. A real pendulum swings with the same period as a simple pendulum with a length equal to the distance from the pivot point to a point in the pendulum called the
center of oscillation
.
[13] This is located under the
center of gravity, at a distance called the
radius of gyration, that depends on the mass distribution along the pendulum. However, for the usual sort of pendulum in which most of the mass is concentrated in the bob, the center of oscillation is close to the center of gravity.
[14]
Christiaan Huygens proved in 1673 that the pivot point and the center of oscillation are interchangeable.
[15] This means if any pendulum is turned upside down and swung from a pivot at the center of oscillation, it will have the same period as before, and the new center of oscillation will be the old pivot point.
History
One of the earliest known uses of a pendulum was in the first century
seismometer device of
Han Dynasty China scientist
Zhang Heng.
[16] Its function was to sway and activate one of a series of levers after being disturbed by the tremor of an
earthquake far away.
[17] Released by the lever, a small ball would fall out of the urn-shaped device into one of eight metal toad's mouths below, at the eight points of the compass, signifying the direction the earthquake was located.
Many sources claim that tenth century
Egyptian astronomer
Ibn Yunis used a pendulum for time measurement
[18] [19] [20] [21] [22], but other sources claim this was a myth started in 1684 by British historian Edward Bernard.
[23] [24]
During the
Renaissance, large pendulums were used as sources of power for manual reciprocating machines such as saws, bellows, and pumps.
[25] Leonardo da Vinci made many drawings of the motion of pendulums, though without realizing its value for timekeeping.
Italian scientist
Galileo Galilei was the first to study the properties of pendulums, beginning around 1602.
[26] His biographer and student,
Vincenzo Viviani, claimed his interest had been sparked around 1582 by the swinging motion of a chandelier in the
Pisa cathedral.
[27] Galileo discovered the crucial property that makes pendulums useful as timekeepers, called
isochronism; the period of the pendulum is approximately independent of the
amplitude or width of the swing.
[28] He also found that the period is independent of the
mass of the bob, and proportional to the square root of the length of the pendulum. He first employed freeswinging pendulums in simple timing applications, such as a
metronome for musicians. A physician friend used it as a timer to take patients'
pulse, the
pulsilogium
. In 1641 Galileo also conceived a design for a pendulum clock.
The pendulum was the first
harmonic oscillator used by man.
In 1656 the
Dutch scientist
Christiaan Huygens built the first
pendulum clock.
[30] This was a great improvement over existing mechanical clocks; their best accuracy was increased from around 15 minutes a day to around 15 seconds a day.
[31] Pendulums spread over Europe as existing clocks were retrofitted with them.
[32]
The English scientist
Robert Hooke studied the
conical pendulum around 1666, consisting of a pendulum that is free to swing in two dimensions, with the bob rotating in a circle or ellipse.
[33] He used the motions of this device as a model to analyze the
orbital motions of the
planets.
[34] Hooke suggested to
Isaac Newton in 1679 that the components of orbital motion consisted of inertial motion along a tangent direction plus an attractive motion in the radial direction. This played a part in Newton's formulation of the
law of universal gravitation.
[35] [36] Robert Hooke was also responsible for suggesting as early as 1666 that the pendulum could be used to measure the force of gravity.
During his expedition to
Cayenne,
French Guiana in 1671,
Jean Richer found that a
pendulum clock was 2 1/2 minutes per day slower at Cayenne than at
Paris. From this he deduced that the force of gravity was lower at Cayenne.
[37] [38] In 1687,
Isaac Newton in
Principia Mathematica
showed that this was because the Earth was not a true sphere but slightly
oblate (flattened at the poles) in combination with the effect of
centrifugal force due to its rotation, causing gravity to increase with
latitude.
[39] Portable pendulums began to be taken on voyages to distant lands, as precision
gravimeters to measure the
acceleration of gravity g
at different points on Earth, eventually resulting in accurate models of the shape of the Earth.
[40]
In 1673, Christiaan Huygens published his theory of the pendulum,
Horologium Oscillatorium sive de motu pendulorum
.
[41] [42] He demonstrated that for an object to descend down a curve under gravity in the same time interval, regardless of the starting point, it must follow a
cycloid curve rather than the circular arc of a pendulum.
[43] This confirmed the earlier observation by
Marin Mersenne that the period of a pendulum does vary with its amplitude, and that Galileo's observation of
isochronism was accurate only for small swings.
[44] Huygens also solved the problem of how to calculate the period of an arbitrarily shaped pendulum (called a
compound pendulum
), discovering the
center of oscillation
, and its interchangeability with the pivot point.
[45]
The existing clock movement, the
verge escapement, made pendulums swing in very wide arcs of about 100°.
[46] Huygens showed this was a source of inaccuracy, causing the period to vary with amplitude changes caused by small unavoidable variations in the clock's drive force.
[47] To make its period isochronous, Huygens mounted cycloidal-shaped metal 'cheeks' next to the pivot in his 1673 clock, that constrained the suspension cord and forced the pendulum to follow a cycloid arc.
[48] This solution didn't prove as practical as simply limiting the pendulum's swing to small angles of a few degrees. The realization that only small swings were
isochronous motivated the development of the
anchor escapement around 1670, which reduced the pendulum swing in clocks to 4°-6°.
During the 18th and 19th century, the
pendulum clock's role as the most accurate timekeeper motivated much practical research into improving pendulums. It was found that a major source of error was that the pendulum rod expanded and contracted with changes in ambient temperature, changing the period of swing.
This was solved with the invention of temperature compensated pendulums, the mercury pendulum in 1721
[51] and the
gridiron pendulum in 1726, reducing errors in precision pendulum clocks to a few seconds per week.
The accuracy of gravity measurements made with pendulums was limited by the difficulty of finding the location of their
center of oscillation. Huygens had discovered in 1673 that a pendulum has the same period when hung from its center of oscillation as when hung from its pivot,
and the distance between the two points was equal to the length of a simple gravity pendulum of the same period.
In 1818 British Captain
Henry Kater invented the reversible
Kater's pendulum [52] which used this principle, making possible very accurate measurements of gravity. For the next century the reversible pendulum was the standard method of measuring absolute gravitational acceleration.
In 1851,
Jean Bernard Léon Foucault showed that the plane of oscillation of a pendulum, like a
gyroscope, tends to stay constant regardless of the motion of the pivot, and that this could be used to demonstrate the
rotation of the Earth. He suspended a pendulum free to swing in two dimensions (later named the
Foucault pendulum) from the dome of the
Panthéon in
Paris. The length of the cord was 67 m. Once the pendulum was set in motion, the plane of swing was observed to
precess or rotate 360° clockwise in about 32 hours.
[53]
This was the first demonstration of the Earth's rotation that didn't depend on astronomical observations,
[54] and a 'pendulum mania' broke out, as Foucault pendulums were displayed in many cities and attracted large crowds.
[55] [56]
Around 1900 low
thermal expansion materials began to be used for pendulum rods in the highest precision clocks and other instruments, first
invar, a nickel steel alloy, and later
fused quartz, which made temperature compensation trivial.
[57] Precision pendulums were housed in low pressure tanks, which kept the air pressure constant to prevent changes in the period due to changes in
buoyancy of the pendulum due to changing
atmospheric pressure.
The accuracy of the best pendulum clocks topped out at around a second per year.
[58]
[59]
The timekeeping accuracy of the pendulum was exceeded by the
quartz crystal oscillator, invented in 1921, and
quartz clocks, invented in 1927, replaced pendulum clocks as the world's best timekeepers,
although the French Time Service continued using pendulum clocks in their official time standard ensemble until 1954.
[60] Pendulum
gravimeters were superseded by "free fall" gravimeters in the 1950s,
[61] but pendulum instruments continued to be used into the 1970s.
Use for time measurement
For 300 years, from its discovery around 1602 until development of the
quartz clock in the 1930s, the pendulum was the world's standard for accurate timekeeping.
In addition to clock pendulums, freeswinging
seconds pendulums were widely used as precision timers in scientific experiments in the 17th and 18th centuries. Pendulums require great mechanical stability: a length change of only 0.02%, 1/5 millimeter in a grandfather clock pendulum, will cause an error of a minute per week.
[63]
Clock pendulums
thumb from a
grandfather clock
Pendulums in clocks (see example at right) are usually made of a weight or
bob (b)
suspended by a rod of wood or metal
(a)
.
To reduce
air resistance (which accounts for most of the energy loss in clocks)
[65] the bob is traditionally a smooth disk with a lens-shaped cross section, although in antique clocks it often had carvings or decorations specific to the type of clock. In quality clocks the bob is made as heavy as the suspension can support and the movement can drive, since this improves the regulation of the clock (see
Accuracy below). A common weight for
seconds pendulum bobs is 15 lbs. (6.8 kg). Instead of hanging from a
pivot, clock pendulums are usually supported by a short straight
spring (d)
of flexible metal ribbon. This avoids the friction and 'play' caused by a pivot, and the slight bending force of the spring merely adds to the pendulum's
restoring force. A few precision clocks have pivots of 'knife' blades resting on agate plates. The impulses to keep the pendulum swinging are provided by an arm hanging in back of the pendulum called the
crutch
,
(e)
, which ends in a
fork
,
(f)
whose prongs embrace the pendulum rod. The crutch is pushed back and forth by the clock's
escapement,
(g,h)
.
Each time the pendulum swings through its center position, it releases one tooth of the
escape wheel
(g)
. The wheel turns, and the tooth presses against one of the pallets
(h)
, giving the pendulum a short push. The clock's wheels, geared to the escape wheel, move forward a fixed amount with each pendulum swing, advancing the clock's hands.
The pendulum always has a means of adjusting the period, usually by an adjustment nut
(c)
under the bob which moves it up or down on the rod.
Moving the bob up decreases the pendulum's length, causing the pendulum to swing faster and the clock to gain time. Some precision clocks have a small auxiliary adjustment weight on a threaded shaft on the bob, to allow finer adjustment. Some precision and
tower clocks use a tray attached to the pendulum rod, to which small weights can be added or removed, to allow the rate to be adjusted without stopping the clock.
[67] [68]
The pendulum must be suspended from a rigid support.
During operation, any elasticity in the support will allow tiny imperceptible swaying motions of the support, which disturbs the clock's period, resulting in error. Pendulum clocks should be attached firmly to a sturdy wall.
The most common pendulum length in quality clocks, which is always used in
grandfather clocks, is the
seconds pendulum, about 1 meter (39 inches) long. In
mantel clocks, half-second pendulums, 25 cm (10 in) long, or shorter, are used. Only a few large
tower clocks use longer pendulums, the 1.5 second pendulum, 2.25 m (7 ft) long, or occasionally the two-second pendulum, 4 m (13 ft).
Temperature compensation
The largest source of error in early pendulums was slight changes in length due to thermal expansion and contraction of the pendulum rod with changes in ambient temperature.
[71] This was discovered when people noticed that pendulum clocks ran slower in summer, by as much as a minute per week
(one of the first was
Godefroy Wendelin, as reported by Huygens in 1658)
[73] and was first studied by
Jean Picard in 1669.
[74] A pendulum with a steel rod will get about 6.3 parts per million (ppm) longer with each 1°F temperature increase, causing it to lose about 0.27 seconds/day, or 16 seconds/day for a 60°F (33°C) change. Wood rods expand less, losing only about 6 seconds/day for a 60°F change, which is why quality clocks often had wooden pendulum rods.
• Mercury pendulum
thumb
The first device to compensate for this error was the mercury pendulum, invented by
George Graham in 1721.
The liquid metal
mercury expands in volume with temperature. In a mercury pendulum, the pendulum's weight (bob) is made of a container of mercury. With a temperature rise, the pendulum rod gets longer, but the mercury also expands and its surface level rises slightly in the container, moving its
center of mass closer to the pendulum pivot. By using the correct height of mercury in the container these two effects will cancel, leaving the pendulum's center of mass, and its period, unchanged with temperature. Its main disadvantage was that when the temperature changed, the rod would come to the new temperature quickly but the mass of mercury might take a day or two to reach the new temperature, causing the rate to deviate during that time. To improve thermal accommodation several thin containers were often used, made of metal. Mercury pendulums were the standard used in precision clocks into the 1900s.
[76]
• Gridiron pendulum
The most widely used compensated pendulum was the
gridiron pendulum, invented in 1726 by
John Harrison.
This consists of alternating rods of two different metals, one with lower thermal expansion (
CTE),
steel, and one with higher thermal expansion,
zinc or
brass. The rods are connected by a frame as shown, so that an increase in length of the zinc rods pushes the bob up, shortening the pendulum. With a temperature increase, the low expansion steel rods make the pendulum longer, while the high expansion zinc rods make it shorter. By making the rods of the correct lengths, the greater expansion of the zinc cancels out the expansion of the steel rods which have a greater combined length, and the pendulum stays the same length with temperature.
Zinc-steel gridiron pendulums are made with 5 rods, but the thermal expansion of brass is closer to steel, so brass-steel gridirons usually require 9 rods. Gridiron pendulums adjust to temperature changes faster than mercury pendulums, but scientists found that friction of the rods sliding in their holes in the frame caused gridiron pendulums to adjust in a series of tiny jumps.
In high precision clocks this caused the clock's rate to change suddenly with each jump. Later it was found that zinc is subject to
creep. For these reasons mercury pendulums were used in the highest precision clocks, but gridirons were used in quality regulator clocks. They became so associated with quality that, to this day, many ordinary clock pendulums have decorative 'fake' gridirons that don't actually have any temperature compensation function.
• Invar and fused quartz
Around 1900 low thermal expansion materials were developed which, when used as pendulum rods, made elaborate temperature compensation unnecessary.
These were only used in a few of the highest precision clocks before the pendulum became obsolete as a time standard. In 1896
Charles Edouard Guillaume invented the
nickel steel alloy Invar. This has a
CTE of around 0.5 ppm/degree F, resulting in pendulum temperature errors over 60°F of only 1.3 seconds/day, and this residual error could be compensated to zero with a few centimeters of aluminum under the pendulum bob
(this can be seen in the Riefler clock image above). Invar pendulums were first used in 1898 in the
Riefler regulator clock [77] which achieved accuracy of 15 milliseconds per day. Suspension springs of
Elinvar were used to eliminate temperature variation of the spring's
restoring force on the pendulum. Later
fused quartz was used which had even lower CTE. These materials are the choice for modern high accuracy pendulums.
[78]
Atmospheric pressure
The presence of air around the pendulum has three effects on the period:
- By Archimedes principle the effective weight of the bob is reduced by the buoyancy of the air it displaces, while the mass (inertia) remains the same, reducing the acceleration and increasing the period. This depends on the density but not the shape of the pendulum.
- The pendulum carries an amount of air with it as it swings, and the mass of this air increases the inertia of the pendulum, again reducing the acceleration and increasing the period.
- Viscous air resistance slows the pendulum's velocity. This has a negligible effect on the period, but dissipates energy, reducing the amplitude. This reduces the pendulum's Q_factor, requiring a stronger drive force from the clock's mechanism to keep it moving, which causes increased disturbance to the period.
So increases in
barometric pressure slow the pendulum slightly due to the first two effects, by about 0.37 sec/day per
inch of mercury (0.015 sec/day per
Torr).
Researchers using pendulums to measure the
acceleration of gravity had to correct the period for the air pressure at the altitude of measurement, computing the equivalent period of a pendulum swinging in vacuum. A pendulum clock was first operated in a constant-pressure tank by Friedrich Tiede in 1865 at the
Berlin Observatory,
[80] [81] and by 1900 the highest precision clocks were mounted in tanks that were kept at a constant pressure to eliminate changes in atmospheric pressure. Alternately, in some a small
aneroid barometer mechanism attached to the pendulum compensated for this effect.
Gravity
Pendulums are affected by changes in gravitational acceleration, which varies by as much as 0.5% at different locations on Earth, so pendulum clocks have to be recalibrated after a move. Even moving a pendulum clock to the top of a tall building can cause it to lose measurable time from the reduction in gravity.
Accuracy of pendulums as timekeepers
The timekeeping elements in all clocks, which include pendulums,
balance wheels, the
quartz crystals used in
quartz watches, and even the vibrating atoms in
atomic clocks, are in physics called
harmonic oscillators. The reason harmonic oscillators are used in clocks is that they vibrate or oscillate at a specific
resonant frequency or period and resist oscillating at other rates. However the resonant frequency is not infinitely 'sharp'. Around the resonant frequency there is a narrow natural band of
frequencies (or periods), called the
resonance width or
bandwidth, that the harmonic oscillator will oscillate at.
[82]
[83] In a clock, the actual frequency of the pendulum may vary randomly within this bandwidth in response to disturbances, but at frequencies outside this band, the clock will not function at all.
Q factor
The measure of a harmonic oscillator's resistance to disturbances to its oscillation period is a dimensionless parameter called the
Q factor equal to the resonant frequency divided by the
bandwidth.
The higher the Q, the smaller the bandwidth, and the more constant the frequency or period of the oscillator for a given disturbance.
[85] The reciprocal of the Q is roughly proportional to the limiting accuracy achievable by a harmonic oscillator as a time standard.
[86]
The Q is related to how long it takes for the oscillations of an oscillator to die out. The
Q of a pendulum can be measured by counting the number of oscillations it takes for the amplitude of the pendulum's swing to decay to 1/
e
= 36.8% of its initial swing, and multiplying by 2p.
In a clock, the pendulum must receive pushes from the clock's
movement to keep it swinging, to replace the energy the pendulum loses to friction. These pushes, applied by a mechanism called the
escapement, are the main source of disturbance to the pendulum's motion. The Q is equal to 2p times the energy stored in the pendulum, divided by the energy lost to friction during each oscillation period, which is the same as the energy added by the escapement each period. It can be seen that the smaller the fraction of the pendulum's energy that is lost to friction, the less energy needs to be added, the less the disturbance from the escapement, the more 'independent' the pendulum is of the clock's mechanism, and the more constant its period is. The
Q of a pendulum is given by:
where
M
is the mass of the bob,
?
= 2p/
T
is the pendulum's radian frequency of oscillation, and
G
is the frictional
damping force on the pendulum per unit velocity.
?
is fixed by the pendulum's period, and
M
is limited by the load capacity and rigidity of the suspension. So the Q of clock pendulums is increased by minimizing frictional losses (
G
). Precision pendulums are suspended on low friction pivots consisting of triangular shaped 'knife' edges resting on agate plates. Around 99% of the energy loss in a freeswinging pendulum is due to air friction, so mounting a pendulum in a vacuum tank can increase the Q, and thus the accuracy, by a factor of 100.
[87]
The Q of pendulums ranges from several thousand in an ordinary clock to several hundred thousand for precision regulator pendulums swinging in vacuum.
[88] A quality home pendulum clock might have a Q of 10,000 and an accuracy of 10 seconds per month. The most accurate commercially produced pendulum clock was probably the
Shortt-Synchronome free pendulum clock, invented in 1921.
Its
Invar master pendulum swinging in a vacuum tank had a Q of 110,000
and an error rate of around a second per year.
This explains why pendulums are more accurate timekeepers than
balance wheels, with Qs around 100-300, but less accurate than
quartz crystals with Qs of 10
5 - 10
6.
Escapement
Pendulums (unlike, for example, quartz crystals) have a low enough Q that the disturbance caused by the impulses to keep them moving is generally the limiting factor on their timekeeping accuracy. Therefore the design of the
escapement has a large effect on the accuracy of a clock pendulum. If the impulses given to the pendulum by the escapement each swing could be exactly identical, the response of the pendulum would be identical, and its period would be constant. This is not achievable; unavoidable random fluctuations in the force due to friction of the clock's pallets, lubrication variations, and changes in the torque provided by the clock's power source as it runs down, mean that the force of the impulse applied by the escapement varies.
If these variations in the escapement's force cause changes in the pendulum's width of swing (amplitude), this will cause corresponding slight changes in the period, since (as discussed at top) a pendulum with a finite swing is not quite isochronous. Therefore, the goal of traditional escapement design is to apply the force with the proper profile, and at the correct point in the pendulum's cycle, so force variations have no effect on the pendulum's amplitude. This is called an
isochronous escapement
.
The Airy condition
In 1826 British astronomer
George Airy showed that the disturbing effect of a drive force on the period (actually the
phase) of a pendulum is smallest if given as a short impulse as the pendulum passes through its bottom
equilibrium position.
Specifically, he proved that if a pendulum is driven by an impulse that is
symmetrical about its bottom equilibrium position, the pendulum's swing will be isochronous for changes in drive force.
[90] The most accurate escapements, such as the
deadbeat, approximately satisfy this condition.
[91]
Gravity measurement
The presence of the
acceleration of gravity g
in the periodicity equation (1) for a pendulum means that the local gravitational acceleration of the Earth can be calculated from the period of a pendulum. A pendulum can therefore be used as a
gravimeter to measure the local
gravity, which varies by about 0.5% at different points on the surface of the Earth. The pendulum in a clock is disturbed by the pushes it receives from the clock movement, so freeswinging pendulums were used, and were the standard instruments of
gravimetry up to the 1930s.
The difference between clock pendulums and gravimeter pendulums is that to measure gravity, the pendulum's length as well as it's period has to be measured. The period of freeswinging pendulums could be found to great precision by comparing their swing with a precision clock that had been adjusted to keep correct time by the passage of stars overhead. In the early measurements, a weight on a cord was suspended in front of the clock pendulum, and its length adjusted until the two pendulums swung in exact synchronism. Then the length of the gravimeter pendulum was measured. From the length and the period,
g
could be calculated from (1).
The seconds pendulum
The
seconds pendulum, a pendulum with a period of two seconds so each swing takes one second, was widely used to measure gravity, because most precision clocks had seconds pendulums. By the late 1600s, the length of the seconds pendulum became the standard measure of the strength of gravitational acceleration at a location. By 1700 its length had been measured with submillimeter accuracy at several cities in Europe. For a seconds pendulum,
g
is proportional to its length:
.
Early observations
- 1620
: British scientist Francis Bacon was one of the first to propose using a pendulum to measure gravity, suggesting taking one up a mountain to see if gravity varies with altitude. [92]
- 1644
: Even before the pendulum clock, French priest Marin Mersenne first determined the length of the seconds pendulum was 39.1 inches (0.993m). He recruited teams of monks to laboriously count the swings for a 24 hour period.
- 1669
: Jean Picard determined the length of the seconds pendulum at Paris, using a 1 inch copper ball suspended by an aloe fiber, obtaining 39.09 in. [93]
- 1672
: The first observation that gravity varied at different points on Earth was made in 1672 by Jean Richer, who took a pendulum clock to Cayenne, British Guiana and found that it lost 2 1/2 minutes per day; its seconds pendulum had to be shortened by 1 1/4 lignes
, or 2.6 mm, shorter than at Paris, to keep correct time. [94] [95] In 1687 Isaac Newton in Principia Mathematica
showed this was because the Earth had a slightly oblate shape (flattened at the poles) caused by the centrifugal force of its rotation, so gravity increased with latitude.
- 1687
: Newton experimented with pendulums (described in Principia
) and found that equal length pendulums with bobs made of different materials had the same period, proving that the gravitational force on different substances was exactly proportional to their mass (inertia).
thumb
- 1737
: French mathematician Pierre Bouguer made a sophisticated series of pendulum observations in the Andes mountains, Peru. [97] He used a copper pendulum bob in the shape of a double pointed cone suspended by a thread; the bob could be reversed to eliminate the effects of nonuniform density. He calculated the length to the center of oscillation of thread and bob combined, instead of using the center of the bob. He corrected for thermal expansion of the measuring rod and barometric pressure, giving his results for a pendulum swinging in vacuum. Bouguer swung the same pendulum at three different elevations, from sea level to the top of the high Peruvian altiplano
. Gravity should fall with the inverse square of the distance from the center of the Earth. Bouguer found that it fell off slower, and correctly attributed the 'extra' gravity to the gravitational field of the huge Peruvian plateau. From the density of rock samples he calculated an estimate of the effect of the altiplano
on the pendulum, and comparing this with the gravity of the Earth was able to make the first rough estimate of the density of the Earth.
- 1747
: Daniel Bernoulli showed how to correct for the lengthening of the period due to a finite angle of swing ?0
by using the first order correction ?02
/16, giving the period of a pendulum with an infinitesimal swing. [97]
- 1792
: To define a pendulum standard of length for use with the new metric system, in 1792 Jean-Charles de Borda and Jean-Dominique Cassini made a precise measurement of the seconds pendulum at Paris. They used a 1 1/2 inch platinum ball suspended by a 12 foot iron wire. The ball could be rotated in its holder to eliminate density variations. Their main innovation was a technique called the "method of coincidences
" which allowed the period of pendulums to be compared with great precision. (Bouguer had also used this method). The time interval between the recurring instants when the two pendulums swung in synchronism was timed. From this the difference between the periods of the pendulums could be calculated.
- 1821
: Francesco Carlini made pendulum observations on top of Mount Cenis, Italy, from which, using methods similar to Bouguer's, he calculated the density of the Earth. [99] He compared his measurements to an estimate of the gravity at his location assuming the mountain wasn't there, calculated from previous nearby pendulum measurements at sea level. His measurements showed 'excess' gravity, which he allocated to the effect of the mountain. Modeling the mountain as a segment of a sphere 11 miles in diameter and 1 mile high, from rock samples he calculated its gravitational field, and estimated the density of the Earth at 4.39 times that of water. Later recalculations by others gave values of 4.77 and 4.95, illustrating the uncertainties in these geographical methods
Kater's pendulum
The precision of the early gravity measurements above was limited by the difficulty of measuring the length of the pendulum,
L
.
L
was the length of an idealized simple gravity pendulum (described at top), which has all its mass concentrated in a point at the end of the cord. In 1673 Huygens had shown that the period of a real pendulum (called a
compound pendulum
) was equal to the period of a simple pendulum with a length equal to the distance between the
pivot point and a point called the
center of oscillation, located under the
center of gravity, that depends on the mass distribution along the pendulum. But there was no accurate way of determining the center of oscillation in a real pendulum.
To get around this problem, the early researchers above approximated an ideal simple pendulum as closely as possible by using a metal sphere suspended by a light wire or cord. If the wire was light enough, the center of oscillation was close to the center of gravity of the ball, at its geometric center. This "ball and wire" type of pendulum wasn't very accurate, because it didn't swing as a rigid body, and the elasticity of the wire caused its length to change slightly as the pendulum swung.
However Huygens had also proved that in any pendulum, the pivot point and the center of oscillation were interchangeable.
That is, if a pendulum were turned upside down and hung from its center of oscillation, it would have the same period as it did in the previous position, and the old pivot point would be the new center of oscillation.
British physicist and army captain
Henry Kater in 1817 realized that Huygens' principle could be used to find the length of a simple pendulum with the same period as a real pendulum.
If a pendulum was built with a second adjustable pivot point near the bottom so it could be hung upside down, and the second pivot was adjusted until the periods when hung from both pivots were the same, the second pivot would be at the center of oscillation, and the distance between the two pivots would be the length of a simple pendulum with the same period.
Kater built a reversible pendulum (shown at right) consisting of a brass bar with two opposing pivots made of short triangular "knife" blades
(a)
near either end. It could be swung from either pivot, with the knife blades supported on agate plates. Rather than make one pivot adjustable, he attached the pivots a meter apart and instead adjusted the periods with a moveable weight on the pendulum rod
(b,c)
. In operation, the pendulum is hung in front of a precision clock, and the period timed, then turned upside down and the period timed again. The weight is adjusted with the adjustment screw until the periods are equal. Then putting this period and the distance between the pivots into equation (1) gives the gravitational acceleration
g
very accurately.
Kater timed the swing of his pendulum using the "
method of coincidences
" and measured the distance between the two pivots with a microscope. After applying corrections for the finite amplitude of swing, the buoyancy of the bob, the barometric pressure and altitude, and temperature, he obtained a value of 39.13929 inches for the seconds pendulum at London, in vacuum, at sea level, at 62°F. The largest variation from the mean of his 12 observations was 0.00028 in.
[100] representing a precision of gravity measurement of 7(10
-6) (7
mgals). Kater's measurement was used as Britain's official standard of length (see
below) from 1824 to 1855.
Reversible pendulums (known technically as "convertible" pendulums) employing Kater's principle were used for absolute gravity measurements into the 1930s.
Later pendulum gravimeters
The increased accuracy made possible by Kater's pendulum helped make
gravimetry a standard part of
geodesy. Since the exact location (latitude and longitude) of the 'station' where the gravity measurement was made was necessary, gravity measurements became part of
surveying, and pendulums were taken on the great
geodetic surveys of the 18th century, particularly the
Great Trigonometric Survey of India.
thumb
- Invariable pendulums:
Kater introduced the idea of relative
gravity measurements, to supplement the absolute
measurements made by a Kater's pendulum. [101] Comparing the gravity at two different points was an easier process than measuring it absolutely by the Kater method. All that was necessary was to time the period of an ordinary (single pivot) pendulum at the first point, then transport the pendulum to the other point and time its period there. Since the pendulum's length was constant, from (1) the ratio of the gravitational accelerations was equal to the square root of the ratio of the periods, and no precision length measurements were necessary. So once the gravity had been measured absolutely at some central station, by the Kater or other accurate method, the gravity at other points could be found by swinging pendulums at the central station and then taking them to the nearby point. Kater made up a set of "invariable" pendulums, with only one knife edge pivot, which were taken to many countries after first being swung at a central station at Kew Observatory, UK.
- Airy's coal pit experiments
: Starting in 1826, using methods similar to Bouguer, British astronomer George Airy attempted to determine the density of the Earth by pendulum gravity measurements at the top and bottom of a coal mine. [102] [103] The gravitational force below the surface of the Earth increases slower than the inverse square of the distance to the center, because by Gauss's law the mass of the spherical shell of crust above the subsurface point does not contribute to the gravity. The 1826 experiment was aborted by the flooding of the mine, but in 1854 he conducted an improved experiment at the Harton coal mine, using seconds pendulums swinging on agate plates, timed by precision chronometers synchronized by an electrical circuit. He found the lower pendulum was slower by 2.24 sec/day. This meant that the gravitational acceleration at the bottom of the mine, 1250 ft below the surface, was 1/14,000 less than it should have been from the inverse square law; that is the attraction of the spherical shell was 1/14,000 of the attraction of the Earth. From samples of surface rock he estimated the mass of the spherical shell of crust, and from this estimated that the density of the Earth was 6.565 times that of water. Von Sterneck attempted to repeat the experiment in 1882 but found inconsistent results.
thumb
- Repsold-Bessel pendulum:
It was time-consuming and error-prone to repeatedly swing the Kater's pendulum and adjust the weights until the periods were equal. Friedrich Bessel showed in a memoir in 1835 that this was unnecessary. [104] As long as the periods were close together, the gravity could be calculated from the two periods and the center of gravity of the pendulum. [105] So the reversible pendulum didn't need to be adjustable, it could just be a bar with two pivots. Bessel also showed that if the pendulum was made symmetrical in form about its center, but was weighted internally at one end, the errors due to air drag would cancel out. Further, another error due to the finite diameter of the knife edges could be made to cancel out if they were interchanged between measurements. Bessel didn't construct such a pendulum, but in 1864 Adolf Repsold, under contract by the Swiss Geodetic Commission made a pendulum along these lines. The Repsold pendulum was about 56 cm long and had a period of about 3/4 second. It was used extensively by European geodetic agencies, and with the Kater pendulum in the Survey of India. Similar pendulums of this type were designed by Charles Pierce and C. Defforges.
thumb
- Von Sterneck and Mendenhall gravimeters:
In 1887 Austro-Hungarian scientist Robert von Sterneck developed a small gravimeter pendulum mounted in a temperature-controlled vacuum tank to eliminate the effects of temperature and air pressure. The pendulum had a half-second period, and was about 25 cm long. It was nonreversible, so it was used for relative gravity measurements, but its small size made the apparatus small and portable. The period of the pendulum was picked off by reflecting the image of an electrical spark created by a precision chronometer off a mirror mounted at the top of the pendulum rod. The Von Sterneck instrument, and a similar instrument developed by Thomas C. Mendenhall of the US Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1890, [106] were used extensively for surveys into the 1920s.
:The Mendenhall pendulum was actually a more accurate timekeeper than the highest precision clocks of the time, and as the 'world's best clock' it was used by
A. A. Michelson in his 1924 measurements of the
speed of light on Mt. Wilson, California.
- Double pendulum gravimeters:
Starting in 1875, the increasing accuracy of pendulum measurements revealed another source of error in existing instruments: the swing of the pendulum caused a slight swaying of the tripod stand used to support portable pendulums, introducing error. In 1875 Charles S Peirce calculated that measurements of the length of the seconds pendulum made with the Repsold instrument required a correction of 0.2 mm due to this error. [107] In 1880 C. Defforges used a Michelson interferometer to measure the sway of the stand dynamically, and interferometers were added to the standard Mendenhall apparatus to calculate sway corrections. [108] A method of preventing this error was first suggested in 1877 by Hervé Faye and advocated by Peirce, Cellérier and Furtwangler: mount two identical pendulums on the same support, swinging with the same amplitude, 180° out of phase. The opposite motion of the pendulums would cancel out any sideways forces on the support. The idea was opposed due to its complexity, but by the turn of the century the Von Sterneck device and other instruments were modified to swing multiple pendulums simultaneously.
thumb
- Gulf gravimeter
: One of the last and most accurate pendulum gravimeters was the apparatus developed in 1929 by the Gulf Research and Development Co. [109] [110] It used two pendulums made of fused quartz, each 10.7 inch (27.2 cm) in length with a period of 0.89 second, swinging on pyrex knife edge pivots, 180° out of phase. They were mounted in a permanently sealed temperature and humidity controlled vacuum chamber. Stray electrostatic charges on the quartz pendulums had to be discharged by exposing them to a radioactive salt before use. The period was detected by reflecting a light beam from a mirror at the top of the pendulum, recorded by a chart recorder and compared to a precision crystal oscillator calibrated against the WWV radio time signal. This instrument was accurate to within 0.3-0.5 (10-7) (30-50 microgals).
Relative pendulum gravimeters were superseded by the simpler LaCoste zero-length spring gravimeter, invented in 1934 by Lucien LaCoste.
Absolute (reversible) pendulum gravimeters were replaced in the 1950s by free fall gravimeters, in which a weight is allowed to fall in a vacuum tank and it's acceleration is measured by an optical
interferometer.
Standard of length
Because the
acceleration of gravity is constant at a given point on Earth, the period of a simple pendulum at a given location depends only on its length. Additionally, gravity varies only slightly at different locations. Almost from the pendulum's discovery until the early 19th century, this property led scientists to suggest using a pendulum of a given
period as a
standard of length.
Until the 19th century, countries based their systems of length measurement on prototypes, metal bar
primary standards, such as the standard
yard in Britain kept at the Houses of Parliament, and the standard
toise
in France, kept at Paris. These were vulnerable to damage or destruction over the years, and because of the difficulty of comparing prototypes, the same unit often had different lengths in distant towns, creating opportunities for fraud.
[111] Enlightenment scientists argued for a length standard that was based on some property of nature that could be determined by measurement, creating an indestructable, universal standard. The period of pendulums could be measured very precisely by timing them with clocks that were set by the stars. A pendulum standard amounted to defining the unit of length by the gravitational force of the Earth, for all intents constant, and the second, which was defined by the
rotation rate of the Earth, also constant. The idea was that anyone, anywhere on Earth, could recreate the standard by constructing a pendulum that swung with the defined period and measuring its length.
Virtually all proposals were based on the
seconds pendulum, in which each swing (a half
period) takes one second, which is about a meter (39 inches) long, because by the late 1600s it had become a standard for measuring gravity (see previous section). By the 1700s its length had been measured with sub-millimeter accuracy at a number of cities in Europe and around the world.
The initial attraction of the pendulum length standard was that it was believed (by early scientists such as Huygens and Wren) that gravity was constant over the Earth's surface, so a given pendulum had the same period at any point on Earth.
So the length of the standard pendulum could be measured at any location, and would not be tied to any given nation or region; it would be a truly democratic, worldwide standard. Although Richer found in 1672 that gravity varies at different points on the globe, the idea of a pendulum length standard remained popular, because it was found that gravity only varies with
latitude. Gravitational acceleration increases smoothly from the
equater to the
poles, due to the
oblate shape of the Earth. So at any given latitude (east-west line), gravity was constant enough that the length of a seconds pendulum was the same within the measurement capability of the 18th century. So the unit of length could be defined at a given latitude and measured at any point at that latitude. For example, a pendulum standard defined at 45° North latitude, a popular choice, could be measured in parts of
France,
Italy,
Croatia,
Serbia,
Romania,
Russia,
Kazakhstan,
China,
Mongolia, the
US, and
Canada. In addition, it could be recreated at any location at which the gravitational acceleration had been accurately measured.
By the mid 19th century, increasingly accurate pendulum measurements by
Edward Sabine and
Thomas Young revealed that gravity, and thus the length of any pendulum standard, varied measurably with local geologic features such as mountains and dense subsurface rocks.
[112] So a pendulum length standard had to be defined at a single point on Earth and could only be measured there. This took much of the appeal from the concept, and efforts to adopt pendulum standards were abandoned.
Early proposals
One of the first to suggest defining length with a pendulum was Flemish scientist
Isaac Beeckman [113] who in 1631 recommended making the seconds pendulum "the invariable measure for all people at all times in all places".
[114] Marin Mersenne, who first measured the seconds pendulum in 1644, also suggested it. The first official proposal for a pendulum standard was made by the British
Royal Society in 1660, advocated by
Christiaan Huygens and
Ole Rømer, basing it on Mersenne's work,
[115] and Huygens in
Horologium Oscillatorum
proposed a "horary foot" defined as 1/3 of the seconds pendulum.
Christopher Wren was another early supporter. The idea of a pendulum standard of length must have been familiar to people as early as 1663, because
Samuel Butler satirizes it in
Hudibras
:
[116]
Upon the bench I will so handle ‘em
That the vibration of this pendulum
Shall make all taylors’ yards of one
Unanimous opinion
In 1671
Jean Picard proposed a pendulum defined 'universal foot' in his influential
Mesure de la Terre
.
[117] Gabriel Mouton around 1670 suggested defining the
toise
either by a seconds pendulum or a minute of terrestrial degree. A plan for a complete system of units based on the pendulum was advanced in 1675 by Italian polymath Tito Livio Burratini. In France in 1747, geographer
Charles Marie de la Condamine proposed defining length by a seconds pendulum at the
equator; since at this location a pendulum's swing wouldn't be distorted by the Earth's rotation. British politicians
James Steuart (1780) and George Skene Keith were also supporters.
By the end of the 18th century, when many nations were reforming their
weight and measure systems, the
seconds pendulum was the leading choice for a new definition of length, advocated by prominent scientists in several major nations. In 1790, then US Secretary of State
Thomas Jefferson proposed to Congress a comprehensive decimalized US 'metric system' based on the seconds pendulum at 38° North latitude, the mean latitude of the United States.
[118] No action was taken on this proposal. In Britain the leading advocate of the pendulum was politician
John Riggs Miller.
[119] When his efforts to promote a joint British-French-American metric system fell through in 1790, he proposed a British system based on the length of the seconds pendulum at London. This standard was adopted in 1824 (below).
The meter
In the discussions leading up to the French adoption of the
metric system in 1791, the leading candidate for the definition of the new unit of length, the
meter, was the seconds pendulum at 45° North latitude. It was advocated by a group led by French politician
Talleyrand and mathematician
Antoine Nicolas Caritat de Condorcet. This was one of the three final options considered by the
French Academy of Sciences committee. However on March 19, 1791 the committee instead chose to base the meter on the length of the
meridian through Paris. A pendulum definition was rejected because of its variability at different locations, and because it defined length by a unit of time. A possible additional reason is that the radical French Academy didn't want to base their new system on the second, a traditional and nondecimal unit from the
ancien regime
.
Although not defined by the pendulum, the final length chosen for the meter, 10
-7 of the pole-to-equater meridian, was very close to the length of the seconds pendulum (0.9937 m), within 0.63%. Although no reason for this particular choice was given at the time, it was probably to facilitate the use of the seconds pendulum as a secondary standard, as was proposed in the official document. So the modern world's standard unit of length is certainly closely linked historically with the seconds pendulum.
Britain and Denmark
Britain and Denmark appear to be the only nations that (for a short time) based their units of length on the pendulum. In 1821 the Danish inch was defined as 1/38th of the length of the mean solar seconds pendulum at 45° latitude at the meridian of
Skagen, at sea level, in vacuum.
[120] [121] The British parliament passed the
Imperial Weights and Measures Act
in 1824, a reform of the British standard system which declared that if the prototype standard
yard was destroyed, it would be recovered by defining the
inch so that the length of the solar seconds pendulum at London, at
sea level, in a vacuum, at 62°F was 39.1393 inches.
[122] This also became the US standard, since at the time the US used British measures. However, when the prototype yard was lost in the 1834 Houses of Parliament fire, it proved impossible to recreate it accurately from the pendulum definition, and in 1855 Britain repealed the pendulum standard and returned to prototype standards.
Other uses
Seismometers
A pendulum in which the rod is not vertical but almost horizontal was used in early
seismometers for measuring earth tremors. The bob of the pendulum does not move when its mounting does and the difference in the movements is recorded on a drum chart.
Schuler tuning
As first explained by
Maximilian Schuler in a 1923 paper, a pendulum whose period exactly equals the orbital period of a hypothetical satellite orbiting just above the surface of the earth (about 84 minutes) will tend to remain pointing at the center of the earth when its support is suddenly displaced. This principle, called
Schuler tuning, is used in
inertial guidance systems in ships and aircraft that operate on the surface of the Earth. No physical pendulum is used, but the
control system that keeps the
inertial platform containing the
gyroscopes stable is modified so the device acts as though it is attached to such a pendulum, keeping the platform always facing down as the vehicle moves on the curved surface of the Earth.
Coupled pendulums
In 1665 Huygens made a curious observation about pendulum clocks. Two clocks had been placed on his
mantlepiece, and he noted that they had acquired an opposing motion. That is, their pendulums were beating in unison but in the opposite direction; 180°
out of phase. Regardless of how the two clocks were started, he found that they would eventually return to this state, thus making the first recorded observation of a
coupled oscillator.
[123]
The cause of this behavior was that the two pendulums were affecting each other through slight motions of the supporting mantlepiece. Many physical systems can be mathematically described as
coupled oscillation. Under certain conditions these systems can also demonstrate
chaotic motion.
Religious practice
Pendulum motion appears in religious ceremonies as well. The swinging
incense burner called a
censer, also known as a
thurible, is an example of a pendulum.
[124] Pendulums are also seen at many gatherings in eastern Mexico where they mark the turning of the tides on the day which the tides are at their highest point. See also
pendula for divination and dowsing.
See also
- Pendulum (mathematics)
- Pendulum clock
- Gridiron pendulum
- Simple harmonic motion
- Conical pendulum
- Spherical pendulum
- Double pendulum
- Foucault pendulum
- Kater's pendulum
- Harmonograph (a.k.a. "Lissajous pendulum")
- Metronome
- Seconds pendulum
- Torsional pendulum
- Inverted pendulum
- Furuta pendulum